Welcome to Vishwa Gou Sammelana

(Consulting Animal Production Systems Specialist, 130A Jalan Awan Jawa,
58200 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia).

ABSTRACT

In the search for efficiency in the use of natural resources, productivity enhancement assumes that there will be maximum use of the available animal genetic resources. In this context, it is imperative to ensure that the available cattle breeds are fully used to the extent possible. Among the non-genetic factors, the significance of feeding and nutrition on the potential performance of indigenous cattle is discussed with reference to knowledge of the availability and value of feeds, effective use in feeding systems that can promote higher performance and contributions to food, draught and manure production. These benefits are important for improved livelihoods and sustainable development. The adaptation and physiological traits peculiar to indigenous cattle are summarised. Key features in these cattle are ability to cope with stresses due to feed unavailability, droughts, and ability to recover much faster from these problems. Data on growth performance and effects of supplementation are reviewed. Supplementation is especially important to ensure high performance in cattle, and is reflected in reports from several countries, to include both multi-nutrient and mineral sources and leguminous forages. Economic justification for supplementation is critical and is illustrated from data on beef production based on feeding ammonia treated straw and cotton seed cake in China. The potential of indigenous breeds is also highlighted in several studies that demonstrated large differences comparing cattle reared in traditional and improved systems. Opportunities for increased contribution from cattle are indicated.

Key words: Cattle, breeds, production systems, feeding and nutrition, improvement
productivity enhancement , conservation.
1. Introduction : The justification of maximizing productivity from the available cattle genetic resources in directly associated with the fact that the demand for foods of animal origin is way in excess of current supplies, due to population growth, urbanisation, increased disposable income and changing consumer preferences. The situation is especially awesome in Asia where there exists, the largest demands for foods of animal origin, namely meat and milk. These factors place unprecedented pressures on the use of natural resources and re-emphasise efficiency in their use that are consistent with maximizing productivity
It is therefore imperative to make the best use of the available indigenous cattle breeds to the extent possible. India has a unique and enviable cattle genetic diversity. The breeds are widely found and distributed to the various agro-ecological zones to which they are fully adapted. Very good examples of some outstanding breeds are Yellow cattle of China and Vietnam; Gir, Sahiwal and Tharparkar dairy breeds, and Kangayam, Krishna Valley and Ongloe breeds used for draught in India; Bali and Madura breeds in Indonesia, Kedah-Kelantan or Kedah-Thai breed in Malaysia and Thailand ; Red Sindhi from Pakistan. The adaptation to the environment involves several important attributes, both anatomical and physiological which then enables them to express multi-purpose function. These include production of meat, milk, draught power and haulage, and also dung. Table 1 presents the range of products and services from cattle.
It is not fully known about the extent of the adaptive qualities and also potential productive capacity of many of these indigenous cattle breeds. A first essential therefore is establishing full understanding of their attributes and capacity in their environment of origin in order to get the best from these cattle. Beyond this, further improvements can be considered as appropriate.These considerations must also involve the need for conservation.
This paper is concerned with the potential improvements to productivity enhancement in cattle. It emphasises the importance of giving attention to non-genetic factors in which improved feeding and management is an important means to ensure maximum productivity and the potentiality of indigenous cattle. It draws attention to the importance and peculiarities of these cattle in farming systems.

Table 1. Cattle products and services in Asia :

Products	Services
Meat ( raw, cooked, blood, soup) Milk (fresh, sour, yoghurt, butter, cheeses, ice cream, baby foods ) Skins (clothes, shoes, water/grain containers, tents, handicraft, thongs etc.) HornsBones ( handicraft )Manure and urine (crops, fish)	Cash income and investment Security and insurancePrestige in ownershipGifts and loansReligious rituals eg. sacrificial slaughter Human nutrition – beneficial characteristics of meat and milkPack transport and draught powerDraught powerMedicine

2. The search for efficiency : In the search for efficiency in the use of animal genetic resources, it is especially important therefore that in most situations to take cognisance of the following issues (Devendra, 1999):-
· Full knowledge of the availability and potential value of the available feed resources
· Effective use in feeding systems that gives predictable levels of performance.
· Identification of the objectives clearly in terms of production and profitability, and
· Ensuring that the resulting benefits are consistent with sustainable development and environmental integrity.
Associated with above and viewed from a farming systems perspective, it is also imperative to consider the following interrelated issues:
· Knowledge of the totality of feeds (forages, crop residues, agro-industrial by-products, and non-conventional feeds).
· Consideration of their nutrient composition and digestibility.
· Appropriateness and efficiency of use within production systems
· Cost of feeding as percentage of total production costs, which account for about 50-60% in ruminants (meat and dairy), and 65-80% in non-ruminants (meat and eggs) in intensive production systems, and
· Self-reliance in the efficient use of feeds.
3. Adaptation and physiological traits : It is pertinent to keep in perspective, the adaptation and physiological traits that are peculiar to indigenous cattle. In order to focus on peculiarities more closely, the differences in the arid and semi-arid, and wet zones are identified. Table 2 summarises the situation, adapted from data that have been reported previously (Devendra, 1987):-
Table 2. Adaptation and physiological traits in indigenous cattle.

Trait	Arid/semi-arid zone	Sub-humid / humid zone
Size and morphology	· Taller · Larger size (350-450 kg) · Loose skin and appendages · Able to walk long distance	· Shorter, compact body · Medium size (300-500 kg) · Higher hair density · Coarse pigmentation · More sweat glands · (800-1500/cm2 )
Heat loss	· Panting · Sweating · Cooling	· Reduced panting · Sweating · Cooling
Feeding behaviour and metabolism	· Relatively lower feed intake · Grazer (3-5 km/day) · More active · Walk long distance · Dietary N in less well digested	· Relatively higher feed intake · Utilise forages efficiently · With coarse roughages · longer retention time
Dry season feed stress	· Better ability to cope with the problem · Recovery is much faster	· Less stress due to more feed availability
Water economy and turnover rate	· Water turnover rate higher than buffaloes · Higher urine concentration · Evaporative water · Loss comparable to sheep	· Less evaporative · Water loss due to humidity · Normal urine concentration

Table 1 indicates that the adaptation and behavioural responses by indigenous cattle are different in the arid and semi-arid zone compared to the wet tropics. With feeding and nutrition for example, cattle are able to walk relatively long distances in search of feeds in the arid areas. Forages are generally well utilised, however, there exists differences in the rate of passage and retention time. Warren et al. (1974) showed that the retention time of steers fed forage diets increased when the environmental temperature increased from 18 to 32oC with associated increased digestibility of dry matter, cellulose, acid detergent fiber and neutral detergent fiber. It is not clear if thermal stress affects all parts of the digestive tract, but it is likely that physical form of the diet is implicated in the rate of passage of digestion.
One of the other characteristics of indigenous cattle is their distinctive ability to recover quickly from period of feed shortages or droughts. This is a very vivid situation in India. In Australia, Moran (1973) found that buffaloes and Brahman crosses grew equally well over 15 months on improved tropical pastures and at twice the rate of bantengs and Shorthorns. However, during the dry season, live weight losses were smaller in the bantengs and buffaloes than in the Shorthorns or Brahmans. The ability of the banteng to maintain body condition and perform better on poor quality pastures has also been noted in other countries such as Thailand and Pakistan. Such observations could be partly due to species differences in voluntary feed intake and utilisation of low quality dry season roughages. These observations implicate that these might partly be due to species differences in voluntary feed intake and utilisation of low quality roughages such as cereal straws and feeds in the dry season. However, the results of Moran, Norton and Nolan (1979) indicate that there are few differences between cattle species in their ability to digest and utilise low quality roughage when comparisons are made between animals of similar live weight and feed intake. The same authors have also reported that with the exception of the Shorthorn, there was little difference in diet digestibility on gross nitrogen and phosphorus metabolism when all animals were fed on low quality roughage at the same intake relative to body weight.
Associated with these adaptation and physiological traits, it is also important to keep in perspective that these indigenous cattle are multi-purpose animals kept for a variety of reasons other than food production. These include value as assets and security, insurance, draught, manure production and recreation. The last three contributions are underestimated in most countries and it is important to emphasise that these drought and use of manure are especially significant for crop-animal systems without which these systems are likely to collapse (Devendra, 2000b). Considered together, indigenous cattle in the tropics are extremely valuable for a number of reasons, and their potential importance is associated with three important features:

1. Individual breeds are fully adapted to local environments in which they are especially productive, namely low input and sustainable production systems. They have lower feed requirements and intake and can withstand periods of feed shortages.
2. They provide the bulk of the local beef supplies and some milk, draught and manure for fertiliser mainly for smallholder production systems.
3. These breeds are valuable sources of genetic material which provide for producing improved breeds through crossbreeding programmes when these are considered necessary.
4. Siginificance of efficient feeding and management:

Efficient feeding and nutrition represents in many situations, the most important constraint affecting productivity from ruminants in South Esat Asia and South Asia (Devendra et al., 1997; Devendra et al., 2000). Attention to this factor is therefore an important means to ensure maximum performance in cattle. The type of response to improved feeding and management largely depends on diet quality, given observed interactions between genotype and diet in both feed intake and live weight change (Moran, 1985). The difference maybe due to differences in stage of maturity and hence tissue composition of live weight gain, but the overriding significance of nutrition on animal performance is unquestionable.
i) Growth performance:
Diets containing 85% (high concentrate) and 30% (high roughage) concentrates were fed to young Madura, Ongole, Bali, Grati ( or Friesian crossbreds) and buffalo bulls in two separate trials. Growth rates in decreasing order were Grati, Ongole, Buffalo, Bali and Madura. Genotype differences were the result of variations in intake rather than efficiency of feed use. In the high concentrate diet, the genotypes approached maturity at different rates, with the Grati at 640 kg and the buffalo at 420 kg in active growth phases, whereas the Ongole at 520 kg and Madura at 440 kg were closer to mature live weights. In the high roughage diet, genotype differences were in stage of maturity was less because of their lower live weight at the end of the shorter feeding period. There were no differences between species in nitrogen, phosphorus and calcium balances fed the high roughage diet were reflected in differences in intake (Moran, 1985). Table 3 presents the performance data recorded over 112 days in the trials.
Table 3. Performance data recorded during period A of trial I (154 days) and II (112 days).
(Moran, 1985).

Item	Trial	Mandura	Ongole	Bali	Grati	Buffalo	Significant factors^A	s.d.^B
Midweight (kg)	I II	324^c 290^b	395^b 335^a	335^c -	425^a 327^a	320^c 314^ab	G, T G x T
Daily dry matter intake (kg/animal)	I II	5.53^c 6.15^b	6.50^b 6.50^ab	6.02^bc -	7.97^a 7.08^a	5.80^bc 6.61^ab	G	0×82
Daily dry matter intakeper unit metabolic live weight (g kg0.75)	I II	72.6^b 87.6^ab	73.3^b 82.8^b	76.8^b -	84.9^a 92.1^a	76.9^ab 89.5^ab	G, T	8×7
Average daily gain(kg per animal)	I II	0.59^c 0.55^b	0.81ab 0.65ab	0.66^bc -	0.90^a 0.78^a	0.73^ab 0.59^b	G, T	0×19
Feed conversion ratio(kg dry matter/gain)	I II	9.8^a 11.6^a	8.2^a 10.3^a	9.7^a -	9.3^a 9.5^a	8.2^a 11.7^a	T	2×7

^A Significant factors: G, genotype; T, trial.
^B s.d., standard deviation equals the square root of the error mean square in analyses of variance.
Values in the same line with a common superscript do not differ (P < 0.05)

(ii) Supplementation :
Associated with growth performance, many more studies have been undertaken on the effects of supplementation. One of the earliest studies that have been undertaken were on the Ongole fed with Imperata cylindrica supplemented with maize or cassava at 3% of metabolic weight. There were no treatment effects, including supplementing with urea. They suggested that energy rather than nitrogen limited the use of I. cylindrica. Also in Indonesia, a series of studies have been reported on the effects of supplementing five levels of rice bran (0, 1-2, 2-4, 3-6 and 4-8 kg/head/days) to Ongole and buffalo bulls, since this by-product is commonly available and is widely used by framers. Feeding rice bran stimulated appetite, initially improved feed conversion efficiency and increased growth rates. Each additional kg of rice bran fed depressed Pennisetum purpureum intake by 0.8 kg in buffaloes and 0.6 kg in Ongole. Nitrogen and phosphorus status were improved in the supplemented animals. It was also concluded that the energy requirements for maintenance and growth did not significantly differ between Ongoles and buffaloes and were similar to values calculated for British cattle (Moran, 1983a). Table 4 summarises the main results.

Table 4. Live weights (on day 80), feed intakes and feed conversion ratios recorded over 161 days growth (Moran, 1983a).

Item	Animal Species	Rice bran supplement (kg/head)					Effect of diet	S.D.
Item	Animal Species	0	1.2	2.4	3.6	4.8	Effect of diet	S.D.
Live weight (kg)	Ongole Buffalo	305 301	313 317	316 320	319 308	332 328	NS	33
Rice bran dry matter intake (kg/head/day)	Ongole Buffalo	0 0	1.05 1.02	2.09 2.10	3.14 3.01	4.04 4.02	-	-
Dry matter intake per unit metabolic body weight (g/kg0×75/day)	Ongole Buffalo	68.7 81.2	73.9 80.9	78.3 82.9	79.4 82.8	87.9 92.4	L	4.94
Feed conversion ratio(kg D.M./kg gain)	Ongole Buffalo	22.6 21.2	14.3 13.8	13.7 14.1	15.1 14.6	13.6 13.5	L, Q	3.81
Percentage total intake as rice bran (%)	Ongole Buffalo	0 0	19.2 16.8	35.6 33.6	52.5 49.4	59.2 56.9	L, Q	0.1

NS- no significant effects; L- linear component significant; Q- quadratic component significant (P < 0.05).
For dairy cows, while concentrate supplementation is necessary, it is important to feed optimal levels in order not to be wasteful. The higher the quality of the forage, the lesser the quantity of concentrates necessary to achieve the desired milk yield. Table 5 presents the estimated amount of concentrates required for target milk yields in 400 kg milking cows ( non-pregnant with zero live weight change ) when ad libitum forage of varying quantities are fed.
The calculations assume that the concentrates were home mixed and contained 12-2 MJ kg DM and 24 % crude protein (Devendra, 1975).
Table 5. Required concentrate intakes (kg DM/ day) for cows fed forages of varying quality to achieve target milk yields (Devendra, 1975)

Milk yield (l/day)	Forage quality Digestibility (or ME in MJ. kg DM)

	55 % (7.3)	60% (8.2)	65% (9.0)	70% (9.9)
6	3.2	0.7	-	-
10	4.9	2.5	0.8	-
14	6.6	4.8	1.1	0.3
18	8.2	6.0	3.0	0, 7
22	9.8	7.7	5.4	1.7

A few studies have reported the use of supplementing Leucaena leucocephala to Ongole cattle in Indonesia. Two of these are especially relevant. In one, the performance of Ongole cattle offered either grass, sun-dried leucaena or varying proportions of each. Cattle offered only grass lost 0.015 kg daily. Bodyweight gains for diets with 40 and 60% leucaena, 0.544 and 0.587 kg, were significantly higher than for diets with 20 and 100% leucaena, 0.292 and 0.306 kg daily, and feed conversion ratios were lowest for the 40 and 60% leucaena diets, 12.0 and 11.3. Dry matter daily intakes were significantly higher for the 20, 40 and 60% leucaena diets 92.8, 95.8 and 94.0 g/kg bodyweight (W) 0.75, than for the 100% leucaena, 75.1 g/W 0.75, or 100% grass, 77.6 g/W 0.75, diets. Protein digestibility was significantly higher for 100% leucaena, 61.9%, than for 100% grass, 53.0%, with other diets intermediate. The leucaena had average mimosine and DHP (a mimosine breakdown product) contents of 1.26% and 0.18% respectively. Plasma thyroxine concentrations averaged 53.3 and 52.9 ng/ml at the beginning of the study and after 20 weeks; there was no significant difference between treatments. Only 5% of the ingested mimosine and DHP was excreted in urine and faeces as mimosine and DHP in cattle offered 100% leucaena. Maximum benefit was with a minimum 40% of leucaena, there was no ill effect on animal health when leucaena was the sole diet.

Rice straw treated with 4% sodium hydroxide and supplemented with L. leucocephala has been fed to Ongole and swamp buffalo bulls. Intake of the treated straw was increased by 30% whereas untreated straw depressed it by 10-20% leucaena supplementation increased the rate of passage of digest and balances of dietary nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus and calcium) and levels of metabolites (Moran, Satoto and Dawson, 1983). Studies on phosphorus supplementation in Ongole bulls and swamp buffaloes from 0.08 to 1.08% and with calcium, phosphorus ratio varying from 0.14 to 4.58, indicated that both species were able to maintain positive phosphorus retention on a diet containing 0.12% P. The relations between P intake and faecal output plus urinary phosphorus output and between Ca intake and faecal plus urinary calcium output were linear in both species (Moran, 1982). In China, use of cotton seed cake and ammoniated straw has produced a major impact on improved beef production (Fan et al., 1993).

5. Potential performance in indigenous cattle
(i) Dietary nutrients:
There is no doubt that indigenous cattle are capable of much higher levels of performance than is evident, conditional to efficient feeding and nutrition. Central to promoting maximum performance in these cattle is to ensure that there is optimum intake of mainly grasses and or cereal straws on which they are largely dependent. Beyond this, strategic supplementation is essential, in which the approach is to provide:
· Feed nutrients deficient for optimal microbial growth
· Nutrients to increase protein supply for absorption of the intestine (by-pass protein) and other nutrients required by the animal (P, Ca etc)
· Potential protozoal toxins to remove the anti-nutritional effects of protozoa.
· Establish response relationships to supplements in ruminants fed treated feeds to increase digestibility
(ii). Supplements :
The supplements needed to balance low digestibility roughages for feeding to ruminants are now classified according to their role as follows (Leng and Devendra, 1995).
· Nutrients essential for efficient microbial growth in the digestive systems of ruminant, which include:
- Multi-mineral sources, e.g. molasses or residues from molasses fermentation (spent liquor), chicken litter or poultry manure made into loose mixtures, liquid mixtures or the same mixes solidified into blocks.
- Non-protein nitrogen sources include urea, chicken manure/litter and soluble proteins from leguminous forages, seeds and agro-industrial by-products (e.g. soyabean curd).
· Supplements that increase protein digested in the small intestine (i.e. by-pass or escape protein or rumen non-degradable protein):
- By-pass protein sources which include protein meals that (a) have been treated in processing (b) contain a low level of tannins (1-3%), (c) have simply been dried, or (d) have been heated with reagents that make the protein insoluble (some protective agents include xylose, glucose, formaldehyde, gluteraldehyde etc).
The best preparation and sources of supplements depend on locality. For example studies have demonstrated that simply drying leaf foliages has an effect on how the material is viewed as a supplement (Norton, 1996). The fresh material appears to enhance only rumen fermentative digestion but the nutritional value of the dry leaf meal appears to be enhanced which may be due to insolubility and thus its content of by-pass protein.
(iii) Examples of potential improvements:

One of the earliest studies demonstrating potential improvements to performance that are feasible concern Kedah-Kelantan cattle in Malaysia, synonymous with indigenous Thai cattle and yellow cattle in South West China. It falls within the thoracic humped cattle category (Maule, 1990) and has also been described by Mason (1999). This breed is a descendant of a crossbred between Shorthorn-type cattle in Western Asia and Zebus from India, of which the Kangayam and Ongole are prominent (Devendra et al., 1973). In Malaysia, a series of studies have been made in the late 1970’s to demonstrate the potential performance due to improved feeding and nutrition in this breed. Table 6 summarises the main results. The potential improvements that are feasible compared to similar cattle in traditional systems are striking, with the following magnitudes of improvement:
· Age at first service by 133.9%
· Live weight 24 months by 80.3%
· Carcass weight by 62.4%
· Dressing percentage by 22.8%
· Meat as percentage of carcass weight 18.7%

Table 6. Magnitude of improvement in Kedah-Kelantan cattle in six important parameters due to improved nutrition (Devendra and Lee, 1975).

Parameter	Traditionalsystem⁺	Improvedsystem⁺⁺	% Improvement
Age at first service ( Months)	35.0	18.0	94.4
Live weight at 24 months (kg.)	133.5	240.7	80.3
Daily live weight gain from 6 to 12 months (g.)	145.0	339.1	133.9
Carcass weight (kg.)	81.3	132.0	62.4
Dressing percentage (%)	44.8	55.0	22.8
Meat as percent of carcass weight (%)	69.9	83.0	18.7

⁺ Refers to farm situations
⁺⁺Data from controlled experiments

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